(2019) reported, in the presence of microwaves at 90C, Co was completely dissolved and average 90% of the total metals were leached with H2SO4. It can be seen that since 2015, the global stock and registration of EVs have grown rapidly, and China and the United States have shown an amazing growth trend.
First, because we know that humans (both individuals and within groups) do not use economic rationality or policy prescription solely to make decisions, techniques have been developed within the field of complex systems science to study and better model behavior.
In the following, we discuss how observed tendencies in research can lead to possible missed opportunities within current scientific literature pertaining to CE for PV. The Discharge operation in Figure 10 is not applicable to PV because PV modules do not store energy. 2021; Wei, Dong, and Chen 2018). 2019). 2019). 4, 32433240.
The disproportionate emphasis on recycling leaves many unanswered questions and challenges for non-recycling CE strategies, a selection of which are discussed below. The concentration on particular aspects of CE for LIBs is in some cases consistent with those topics market importance, and in other cases reveals which relevant aspects of CE for LIBs have been under-investigated, which raises opportunities for future research. Additional studies will be necessary to draw more definitive conclusions and identify options with the greatest benefits and fewest trade-offs. 51904073), and the National Key Research and Development Project (Nos.
This is an open-access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (CC BY).
2021a; Wang et al. Individuals are often more familiar with the consumer perspective, which is why we decided to include those definitions; however, the literature that we collected was focused on the manufacturer's perspective and thus is the target of this review.
Additionally, we searched in the Office of Scientific and Technical Information (OSTI) database a repository of U.S. Department of Energy-funded publications consisting mostly of technical reports in September and November for LIBs and PV, respectively. 2019). Time series illustrating historical and forecasted global prices (dotted line, left vertical axis) and cumulative demand (shaded area, right vertical axis) for LIBs in stationary and transportation (EV) markets from 2010 to 2035.
2021a). (B) The global stock of EVs. Counts of PV CE publications based on the classifiers listed in Table 3: of Indicators (A), Life Cycle Phase (B), Scope of CE Strategy (C), Scale of Operations (D) or Study Type (where E includes all publications and F just reviews). Moreover, a PV system includes the module and the balance of system components that are required to generate and transmit alternating current (e.g., inverter, electrical cables) and provide mechanical support (e.g., mounting structure). Process by which the systematic literature review was performed, following Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analyses (PRISMA) guidelines. ], Panasonic, call2recycle team for battery recycling initiative environmental leader, Strategic mineral resources: Availability and future estimations for the renewable energy sector, Metal mining constraints on the electric mobility horizon, Reused second life batteries for aggregated demand response services, Efficient reuse of anode scrap from lithium-ion batteries as cathode for pollutant degradation in electro-Fenton process: Role of different recovery processes, An innovative approach to recover anode from spent lithium-ion battery, Method for recycling spent lithium metal polymer rechargeable batteries and related materials, Publications Office of the European Union, Installers to play key role in UNSW solar module recycling strategy, Second life batteries lifespan: Rest of useful life and environmental analysis. Such analysis could help develop and roll-out the training programs required to develop the workforce. In recent years, some mild organic acids have been widely studied. Considers not just material but also digital CE pathways. The cells can then also be disassembled (e.g., carrier plates, temperature sensing plates).
Transport only the smaller mass of black mass to centralized recycling facilities (electrive.com 2020, Slattery, Slattery, Dunn, and Kendall 2021). 2020; Velzquez et al. 2021), there is a lack of robust estimates of LIB waste volumes which account for.
For example, an effort-based metric quantifying the amount of time required to disassemble a PV module can be applied to compare and rank different design-for-recycling approaches, which is a part of the rethink CE strategy. The PV module components external to the backsheet and glass are typically removed through a mechanical process (e.g., cutting or a robotic arm) (Latunussa et al. Annual count of the different CE strategies for PV systems which were reported in original research publications from 2000 to 2021. Cryogenic (Dassisti, Florio, and Maddalena 2017).
The variance in the SOH at the end of life, in addition to the diversity in the design and form factors (Groenewald et al. Open-loop recycling includes two possible scenarios: Materials recovered from non-LIB products are used in the manufacturing of LIB. 2014), which has methodological features that can better evaluate low-technology readiness level technologies. 2015; Bruer 2016; Jiao and Evans 2016, White, White, Thompson, and Swan 2020).
2020) (Lai et al.
Photovoltaics (PV) have been found to likely play a prominent future role in the energy transition (DOE 2021; IEA 2021a) because of their extremely low greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions (e.g., Scott and Heath Garvin 2021) and rapidly falling costs (Barbose et al. Biotechnol. part I: from mineral and brine resources. However, due to the high energy density, high safety and low price of lithium ion batteries have great differences and diversity, the recycling of waste lithium ion batteries has great difficulties. 2020). This critical review is motivated by the potential for dramatic growth of two clean energy technologies photovoltaics and lithium-ion batteries and the desire to sustainably manage both the increased demand for materials and their handling at each technologys end of life.
First, have we achieved a circular economy for LIB and PV yet? One way to mitigate material supply challenges is to recover materials from products at the end of their lifetime through recycling. As another example, increased adoption of CE strategies such as reuse and refurbishment will decrease the volume of waste LIB being sent to recycling, thus potentially affecting economies of scale.
2017). Note that CdTe recycling, which is dominated by CdTe's largest manufacturer and is now in its third commercial-scale design, does recover all materials (Search for First Solar here: https://www.cdp.net/en). Impact of recycling on cradle-to-gate energy consumption and greenhouse gas emissions of automotive lithium-ion batteries. 2019). 2021) can make the manufacture of modules cheaper but can also negatively impact the economic feasibility of recycling operations by decreasing the revenues earned from resale of recovered silver. Increasing volumes of decommissioned PV panels, including those with remaining capacity greater than the common warranty level of 80% rated nameplate capacity, should motivate more research into non-recycling CE strategies such as repair and reuse. Our analysis also identifies a lack of robust uncertainty assessment when presenting results of LCAs and TEAs for CE strategies, which are typically in the early stages of technology development or commercial maturity. Reuse (Rajagopalan et al.
2019). Furthermore, we evaluate a greater number of publications than past studies: Our systematic review procedures identified for screening 1,103 journal publications and 251 government reports for LIBs, and 1,349 journal publications and 408 government reports for PV. 2003)). 2018, Beaudet, Larouche et al.
Application of these definitions for both LIBs and PV are detailed in sections Review of Available CE Pathways for LIBs from a Systems Perspective and Review of Available CE Pathways for PV from a Systems Perspective. Definitions of the lower-numbered CE strategies (R0R2) can vary, for instance by whether it is from the consumer or producer (manufacturer) perspective. (Comments on CdTe module design for recycling can also be found in (Norgren, Carpenter, and Heath 2020)).
In addition, we classified each publication as either an original research publication or a review. No. 2020). 2020, Cui et al. = per annum).
Extract. As a result, the recovery of anode and electrolyte could have to compete with emerging synthetic pathways of production, thus motivating research to enhance value from recycling by recovering more materials at higher quality and lower cost. With regard to addressing community concerns, socio-technical research can be particularly helpful.
For example, an EV LIB can be repurposed for use in a stationary energy storage application for such purposes as load levelling, transmission support, and grid frequency regulation (Ahmadi et al.
The anode is also not recovered (Harper et al. First, we categorized the publications as yes or no for the following eight literature classifiers: Sustainability and Circular Economy Indicators, CE Strategies, Life Cycle Phase, Scope of CE Solution(s), Scale of Operations, Study Types, Publication Type, Recycling Type, Cathode Chemistry (LIB), LIB component, LIB Cell Component, LIB Application, PV Technologies and Materials Recovered from Recycling (PV only). We refer the reader to the corresponding LIB section above for additional discussion points that apply equally to the case of PV. 2019) and has slower reaction kinetics, leading to longer processing times which can impact process economics (Harper et al. (2014).
Capacity fade mechanisms and side reactions in lithium-ion batteries. Potential social impacts that would benefit from further investigation include the creation of employment opportunities, decrease in energy poverty through lowering the cost barriers to access PV (e.g., secondary PV modules), and prevention of environmental release of hazardous materials (Mies and Gold 2021; Vanhuyse et al.
2018) to account for and assess the impact of data uncertainty. 2018).
Recovered as Solder Metals from both c-Si and CdTe.
PSS for LIBs include business models such as battery swapping and leasing (Li and Ouyang 2011; Zhang and Rao 2016) and virtual battery systems (Renewable Energy World 2020), which enable multiple services from a single unit. We provide the following three observations of current challenges for recycling PV and LIBs.
The total number of publications from the searches that passed each screen is shown in Figure 8. 2016), Veo= Veolia (Veolia 2021a), Fir= First Solar (Sinha, Cossette, and Mnard 2012), Sol= SolarRecyclingExperts (SolarRecyclingExperts 2021)).
Entities such as waste management firms and metal recyclers which recycle LIB and PV systems along with other products (e.g., minerals, metals, electronics) (Cascade Eco Minerals 2021).
One challenge created by the growth of PV and LIBs is a concomitant increase in demand for materials to support the manufacture of these technologies. 2019, Chen, Wang et al.
Robust, publicly available and dynamically updated waste estimates for LIB waste, which account for the above factors and are spatially granular, could inform commercial decisions to site and scale infrastructure for recycling and non-recycling CE operations for LIBs. The second was to extract the electrolyte with subcritical CO2 and then heat it. However, there remains some ambiguity and distinctions in using these terms, which introduces uncertainty and variability to our review and is discussed in the Methods section. *The OSTI search was limited to technical reports and not other types of publications. Digital monitoring of performance, operational conditions, and health enables this reduce strategy.
What really shakes the lithium resource reserve to promote the development of LIBs is the development of EVs.
A review on environmental, economic and hydrometallurgical processes of recycling spent lithium-ion batteries.
2018; Li, Lee, and Manthiram 2020; Zhu et al.
Moreover, there can be potential trade-offs between economic, environmental, and social impacts of different CE strategies. J. The criteria for inclusion at each step for both LIBs and PV is shown in Table 1.
(n=160). Despite the economic and environmental promise, there are technical and analytical challenges to non-recycling CE strategies for LIB. As noted above, pre-processing is optional for certain recyclers using pyrometallurgical methods i.e., when the whole LIB is fed into a high-temperature furnace (Gaines 2019). A more simple and efficient process for recovery of cobalt and lithium from spent lithium-ion batteries with citric acid. Hot Work Technol. A schematic diagram of the design of a typical crystalline silicon PV module is provided for reference in Figure S3. Selective recovery of lithium from spent lithium iron phosphate batteries: a sustainable process.
Sorting is required if the PV recycler accepts more than one PV technology as a part of the input waste stream (e.g., SolarRecyclingExperts in Figure 10). Design decisions, material choices, and process changes (e.g., as proposed by green chemistry principles) (Li et al.
For instance, what the literature calls LIB direct recycling we feel is properly characterized as remanufacturing (see Section LIB CE in the EOL phase Material Flows).
There are strategies that maintain the product within the use phase: repair (R4) and direct reuse (R3) of LIBs as well as rethink (R1) (through alternative ownership models like product-service systems) and reduce (R2) (through application of operational best practices).
After that, the Li is extracted by hydrometallurgy, and then it is transshipped and stored through the form of Li2CO3.
While lab-scale research is useful in demonstrating proofs of concept and identifying economically, environmentally, and socially promising CE strategies, there is a need for follow-up analysis to ensure that the benefits can also be realized at a commercial scale. Front. The reaction equation is as follows: For inorganic acids, temperature, pH value, reaction time, additives and so on have a significant impact on the leaching performance. 2017). Similarly, extant research heavily emphasizes mass-based indicators, which is a traditional way to quantify recycling efficiency (Dodbiba et al. A largely separate set of publications have focused on the recovery of specialty materials such as solder metals (e.g., lead, tin) or precious metals like silver to increase revenues from recovered materials.
Manufacturer: Use of the product again by a second customer for the same functionality or purpose. Challenges in the development of advanced Li-ion batteries: a review. The PV system can potentially be defined as waste after the end of first life when its decommissioned or after the second life (e.g., after repair and reuse). Electricity generation by technology in 2020, 2035, and 2050 as simulated in the Solar Futures Study (reproduced with permission (DOE 2021)).
Regulations can incentivize recycling by requiring manufacturers to collect and manage end-of-life waste through reuse and recycling without cost to the owner (Washington State Legislature 2017), mandating a minimum mass to be collected and recycled (Chowdhury et al. Eliminating fluorinated backsheets decreases the economic costs of c-Si PV recycling by eliminating the need for additional processes and equipment (Fraunhofer UMSICHT 2017) to manage fluorinated emissions and wastes (Deng et al. With such massive scales of deployment, questions have arisen regarding issues of material supply for manufacturing, end-of-life management of technologies, environmental impacts across the life cycle, and economic costs to both individual consumers and society at large.
Labels of materials and other attributes: Enhancing product labeling can enable more efficient decommissioning, sorting, and subsequent allocation of the LIB to the most suitable recycling process (Gaines, Richa, and Spangenberger 2018).
There are also use-phase CE strategies that receive LIBs from the EOL phase: repurpose (R7) and refurbish (R5) as well as when LIBs are collected at EOL for repair (R4) and then reused (R3). Non-recycling CE strategies: We identified key knowledge gaps for (1) the social drivers that influence the effectiveness of a CE for PV and (2) the social impacts that are realized after a CE for PV is implemented. A combined recovery process of metals in spent lithium-ion batteries.
Direct regeneration of cathode materials from spent lithium iron phosphate batteries using a solid phase sintering method.
Among the publications focusing on LFP, LMO, and NCA, a significant share considers recycling of multiple chemistries (e.g., mixed cathode recycling (Zheng et al. 2016), and. Considering the blowout development of EVs, the disposal of the huge amount of spent lithium-ion batteries (LIBs) brought about by the exhaustion of the life cycle of LIBs will soon become a huge problem that plagues society. Figure 12.
(2019). 2021).
Hazard. More details and examples regarding literature classification can be found in Table 3 and SI section S3.3. For an energy-generating technology like PV, the ideal scenario to increase climate benefits would be powering with PV throughout the PV supply chain (Ravikumar et al. Specifically for LIBs, the term reuse is often used instead of repurpose when defining the process of using decommissioned electric vehicle batteries in stationary energy storage applications (Cusenza et al. This study has looked at 44 commercial recyclers and assessed their recycling and reclamation processes.
However, impurities in ingot cuts and kerf can degrade cell performance (Davis et al.
For example, with the economics of recycling processes depending significantly on cobalt content in the LIB (Lander et al. However, there are cases where higher material circularity comes with trade-offs, such as higher cost or worse environmental impact (Dias et al. (Umi= Umicore (Samarukha 2020; Velzquez et al. 2021c).
In the past few years, with the development of energy storage industry, LIBs with higher energy density and higher power output have been widely used in EVs. Energy Environ.
*Note: Studies solely focused on non-PV/LIB recycled materials to be used in PV or LIB manufacturing were screened out of our review (Screen 3), as the recycling of non-PV/LIB materials are not part of PV/LIB CE.
Screen 3 was the most intensive and thus we emphasize and elaborate what is shown in Table 2 here.
If either private or public investments are to efficiently develop U.S. capability to recycle PV modules, such information would be critical to know with as much certainty as possible. 2021; Rocchetti and Beolchini 2015; Rubino et al. Figure 16.
It is beneficial to be aware of such trade-offs ahead of time so more optimal choices can be made and remaining trade-offs accepted. 2014; Huang et al. Generally, a LIB includes a cathode, an anode, a separator, electrolyte, and a case with a sealing function. These operations typically occur sequentially from top down, however some recyclers perform them in different orders or can skip certain operations based on their specific process and target materials. And Shih et al. Prevent avoidable transport through accurate state-of-health-based sorting, wherein only LIB that cannot be salvaged by repurpose, reuse, or refurbish are sent to recycling facilities. 2015; Stehlk, Knapov, and Kostka 2019). Associations of industrial, governmental, and nongovernmental (e.g., researchers, non-profit organizations) members who are seeking to expand the commercial markets for recycling by developing compliance services, standards, skills, research and development, and location-specific consulting services (SAE 2016, 2019; Call2Recycle 2021; ReCell 2021; PVCycle 2022, SSEIA 2022).
The emergence of four other strategies repurpose, remanufacture, refurbish, and reuse can be attributed to an increase in the volume of LIB waste (WEF 2018) and the emergence of market opportunities to apply the decommissioned LIBs in second life applications (Ahmadi et al. For example, research has demonstrated that silicon wafers can be recovered from spent crystalline PV panels when subjected to etching to remove the dopants (e.g., boron), back contacts (e.g., Al), metallization, (e.g., silver), and anti-reflective coating (SiNx), and then reused in the manufacture of new Si PV panels (Lee et al. It was of interest to distinguish publications that only researched one sub-classifier referred to as exclusive from publications that researched multiple sub-classifiers referred to as multiple. One or more can be skipped based on the process adopted by the LIB recycler. 2020).
Figure 5. 215, 398402. Therefore, use of PV in the text can be understood to mean PV modules, with exceptions noted by explicit mention of other components or the system as a whole.
2021; Hendrickson et al. The purification/metal-extraction step corresponds to the Separate operation shown in Figure 10. Novel approach to recover cobalt and lithium from spent lithium-ion battery using oxalic acid. Advanced methods of uncertainty and sensitivity analysis to better account for data uncertainty and variability (Cucurachi, Borgonovo, and Heijungs 2016; Ravikumar et al.
2021a). These challenges are related in a simple but powerful formulation known as the IPAT equation: environmental impact (I)= population (P) affluence (A) technology (T) (Ehrlich and Holdren 1971). In pyrometallurgical methods, the electrolyte and the organic materials including the separator and the plastics are combusted, providing energy for the process (Chen et al. These standards are developed by engaging multiple stakeholders and building consensus (Curtis et al. 28, 333338.
LCAs and TEAs improve the sustainability outcomes of a CE by. 2019), or to improve electrolytes that can suppress dendritic growth (Ahmad et al. The explosion, combustion and poisonous gas brought on the recovery process are easy to cause casualties. In addition, because the recovery of LIBs is in the initial stage, the current research level and the industrial development level cannot achieve the perfect recovery, namely safety, low cost, low energy consumption and no pollution. 2017) will help prevent the potential release of lead to the environment at end of life and could potentially prevent modules from being classified as hazardous waste, with its accompanying increase in cost of recycling and disposal.
These pathways are less mature than the material pathways and can include: Design for circularity (DfC): DfC is considered one approach to rethink (R1), by incorporating CE principles into the design of the product or the manufacturing process with the goal of increasing the circularity of the product.
The counts account for c-Si and CdTe, as well as publications that did not report which technology they studied. In addition, the supply of kerf as feedstock in open-loop recycling to allied industries (e.g., hydrogen production (Kao, Kao, Huang, and Tuan 2016), lithium-ion batteries (Kim et al. Potential challenges in the commercial scaling of LFP and LMO recycling technologies that are relatively immature need to be addressed.
We apply state-of-the-science systematic literature review procedures to critically analyze over 3,000 publications on the circular economy of solar PV and LIBs, categorizing those that pass a series of objective screens in ways that can illuminate the current state of the art, highlight existing impediments to a circular economy, and recommend future technological and analytical research. 2020; Ravikumar et al.
However, all of these non-technological aspects are significantly understudied even for recycling, but especially for other CE strategies compared to the development of technologies and characterization of their technical performance. This critical review aims to synthesize the growing literature to identify key insights, gaps, and opportunities for research and implementation of a circular economy for two of the leading technologies that enable the transition to a renewable energy economy: solar PV and lithium-ion batteries (LIBs). RSC Adv. Hydrometallurgy 68, 510. The automotive industry has a robust secondary market for used vehicles; the industry also reuses parts from non-functional vehicles, remanufactures engines, regularly repairs components, and recycles around 95% (in the United States) of vehicles at end of life (EOL) (Aguilar Esteva et al. 2020; Walzberg, Carpenter, and Heath 2021; Putri and Kusumastuti 2021; Walzberg et al. Virtual battery storage or product-service systems (PSS): In PSS, which are considered one approach to rethink (Table 1), the entity owning the LIB is separate from the entity consuming the energy storage function of the LIB.
2021b) can generate environmental trade-offs across multiple life cycle phases, which can be robustly evaluated through an LCA. 2020, 2016; Xu et al. 2017), which is the most dominant CE strategy for PV (Figure 17). Another underrepresented strategy in the extant PV CE literature is the reduce strategy. 2019), Fre= FRELP/Sasil (Latunussa et al.
Waste Manag.
For reference, the above factors have been studied in agent-based modeling and systems dynamics models investigating technologies like PV (Walzberg, Carpenter, and Heath 2021), computer hardware (Walzberg et al. Life cycle assessment and economic analysis of acidic leaching and baking routes for the production of cobalt oxalate from spent lithium-ion batteries. Repaired modules can potentially be sold at a lower price than new modules, which could help drive adoption of PV energy in price-sensitive markets (Solar Power World 2021).
As a hydrometallurgical process, bioleached metals are extracted by dissolving spent electrode materials with metabolites excreted by microorganisms (bacteria and fungi).
2020) and economic (Choi and Fthenakis 2010a, 2010b; Cucchiella, DAdamo, and Rosa 2015; Mahmoudi, Huda, and Behnia 2020) impacts of CE strategies. Further research is needed to analyze newer recycling system designs and LIBs. The use, distribution or reproduction in other forums is permitted, provided the original author(s) and the copyright owner(s) are credited and that the original publication in this journal is cited, in accordance with accepted academic practice.
To improve the current circular economy of batteries reuse and repurposing of materials (closed-loop recycling), instead of purely recycling or recovery of metals should be considered for further development.
In addition, there is a lack of consensus around standardized testing protocols to assess the toxicity compliance and classify PV modules into hazardous and non-hazardous waste categories (Curtis et al. Publications may have received zero counts for Indicators but required at least one count for the other classifiers.
Even for markets without specific mandates, policies and regulations can play a critical role in shaping the marketplace and technology adoption. Yet, sometimes certain approaches to improving one CE strategy can affect another.
2018; Wender et al. A successful CE for LIB and PV requires the participation of diverse stakeholders, each of whom have different and often complementary functions. At the same time, however, there is a need to assess the potential social implications from reduced employment if automation is adapted at an industrial scale and offsets labor-intensive recycling operations (Guyot Phung 2019; Zheng et al. Mater. Standing Committee of the National Peoples Congress, Possibilities of use of glass recyclate from photovoltaic panels for concrete masonry units, Characterizing electric vehicle battery end-of-life fates for agent-based model of battery repurposing and recycling systems, American Center for Life Cycle Assessment Conference, Virtual, Location of facilities and network design for reverse logistics of lithium-ion batteries in Sweden, Assessing variability in toxicity testing of PV modules, Thermal treatment of waste photovoltaic module for recovery and recycling: Experimental assessment of the presence of metals in the gas emissions and in the ashes, The social-economic-environmental impacts of recycling retired EV batteries under reward-penalty mechanism, Recovering large-scale battery aging dataset with machine learning, Major challenges and opportunities in silicon solar module recycling, Second life and recycling: Energy and environmental sustainability perspectives for high-performance lithium-ion batteries, Simulating process-product interdependencies in battery production systems, The importance of design in lithium ion battery recycling A critical review, To shred or not to shred: A comparative techno-economic assessment of lithium ion battery hydrometallurgical recycling retaining value and improving circularity in LIB supply chains, Behaviour change in post-consumer recycling: Applying agent-based modelling in social experiment, 31st European Photovoltaic Solar Energy Conference and Exhibition, Faults and infrared thermographic diagnosis in operating c-Si photovoltaic modules: A review of research and future challenges, Towards a circular supply chain for PV modules: Review of todays challenges in PV recycling, refurbishment and re-certification, End-of-life pathways for photovoltaic backsheets, The lack of social impact considerations in transitioning towards urban circular economies: A scoping review, A critical review of lithium-ion battery recycling processes from a circular economy perspective, Recycling photovoltaic panels, a technology unique in France, Veolia opens the first European plant entirely dedicated to recycling photovoltaic panels, Repair options for PV modules with cracked backsheets.
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